Infectious disease outbreaks

Explanation

Statement 1 is correct. Shamonda virus belongs to the genus Orthobunyavirus in the Simbu group and spreads via Culicoides midge bites. Culicoides midges are blood-feeding arthropods, and Orthobunyaviruses transmitted this way are indeed classified as arboviruses (arthropod-borne viruses), placing them in the same broad mechanistic category as dengue (Aedes mosquito) and chikungunya — all are transmitted by blood-feeding arthropod vectors, even though the specific vector genus differs. Statement 2 is incorrect on a conceptual level. The absence of evidence for sustained human-to-human transmission does NOT by itself establish that a zoonotic pathogen poses no public health risk. A virus can cause severe individual disease through repeated zoonotic spillover from an animal reservoir without ever developing efficient human-to-human transmission (e.g., avian influenza H5N1, Nipah in many outbreaks). Public health risk assessment for zoonoses encompasses the severity of individual cases, the exposure burden, the reservoir's geographic spread, and the potential for viral adaptation — not merely the presence or absence of an established human transmission chain. Conflating 'no sustained human-to-human transmission' with 'no public health risk' is a classic misconception in emerging-disease epidemiology. Statement 3 is correct. The One Health framework explicitly integrates surveillance across human, animal and environmental health. In many zoonotic emergence events, animal-health signals (unusual disease clusters in livestock or wildlife) precede or coincide with the first human cases. Monitoring livestock, investigating unusual human infections, and sharing laboratory findings are all core One Health surveillance actions that enable early detection of spillover events — precisely what is being done in response to Shamonda virus detections across European livestock before and after the first human case.

Explanation

Pair 1 is correctly matched: the PABS (Pathogen Access and Benefit-Sharing) system is indeed the central unresolved mechanism within the WHO Pandemic Agreement (2025), designed to govern how pathogen samples with pandemic potential are shared with researchers and manufacturers, and how the resulting benefits — vaccines, diagnostics, treatments — flow back equitably to all countries, especially developing nations. Pair 2 is also correctly matched: the International Health Regulations (IHR), last comprehensively revised in 2005, is the existing binding international legal instrument under WHO that defines member states' obligations for surveillance, reporting, and response to public health emergencies of international concern (PHEICs). It remains the foundational governance framework and was not replaced by the Pandemic Agreement. Pair 3 is incorrectly matched: the WHO Pandemic Agreement (2025) did NOT replace the IHR, nor did it transfer pandemic-response authority to the WHO Secretariat. The IHR continues to operate as the binding treaty framework. The Pandemic Agreement is a complementary instrument adopted by member states to address systemic gaps exposed by COVID-19 — particularly around equitable access — but sovereignty in public-health decision-making remains with member states. This is a critical doctrinal distinction in global health governance.

Explanation

Statement 1 is correct. India accounts for nearly a quarter of global TB cases, reflecting its position as the country with the highest TB burden globally — a figure consistently reported in WHO Global TB Reports. This makes TB elimination in India a critical component of any global strategy to end TB. Statement 2 is incorrect. Drug-resistant TB is notably more difficult to treat than drug-sensitive TB precisely because it also requires combination antibiotic therapy — typically involving multiple second-line drugs administered over a prolonged period (often 18–24 months or more under older regimens, with newer regimens being somewhat shorter but still multi-drug). It is NOT treated with a single antibiotic; in fact, the emergence of resistance makes treatment more complex, not simpler, requiring combinations to prevent further resistance development.

Explanation

Both statements are correct. Integrated Vector Management (IVM) is a framework developed by the World Health Organization that promotes rational use of multiple control methods — chemical (such as adulticides and insecticides), biological (such as larvivorous fish and sterile insect techniques), and environmental (such as eliminating breeding sites) — in a coordinated and interdisciplinary manner rather than relying on any single method. The One Health approach is a globally recognised public health concept that treats human health, animal health (including wildlife and livestock), and environmental/ecosystem health as deeply interconnected. In the context of VBDs — many of which are zoonotic or ecologically driven — the One Health framework calls for multi-sectoral collaboration across health, agriculture, environment, and other departments, which is why the Parliamentary Committee specifically recommended its promotion in tribal-forest regions where human-animal-ecosystem interfaces are pronounced.