GS-I: Heritage, History, Geography
El Niño
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Periodic warming of central and eastern equatorial Pacific sea-surface temperatures defines El Niño, the warm phase of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Under normal conditions, trade winds push warm water westward and drive the Walker Circulation; during El Niño, those winds weaken, warm water spreads eastward, and the circulation slackens. Suppressed Indian Ocean convection follows, delaying monsoon onset and producing deficit rainfall or drought over India. La Niña, the cold ENSO phase, has the opposite effect, intensifying the southwest monsoon. The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) acts as a modulating factor: a positive IOD can partially offset El Niño-driven monsoon failure.