Consider the following statements regarding the circular economy for batteries and the recovery of critical minerals from lithium-ion battery waste (black mass):

Statements

1. Black mass, obtained by shredding and processing used lithium-ion batteries, is a source of secondary critical minerals such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and graphite that can be recovered and reused in new battery manufacturing.
2. In a circular economy framework for batteries, black mass functions as a primary raw material source, since the minerals it contains are chemically identical in composition and concentration to those extracted from virgin ore deposits.
3. Restricting the export of battery black mass is a supply-side intervention aimed at ensuring that domestically generated secondary mineral-rich waste is processed within the country, thereby reducing dependence on virgin critical mineral imports for battery and energy storage industries.